Unemployment and Crime - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1620 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/05/31 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Unemployment Essay Did you like this example? I. Introduction For a long time, crime has been the most irritating issue among social disorders. Individual in society are always concern about crime and the its implication it has on society and country. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Unemployment and Crime" essay for you Create order People are always scared about what happen in their community and always look forward to ways the can reduce or stop it. Many factors go into why crime always happen in society but the most common one we always look at is whether the individual involved in crime have prior history of it. Unemployment has always factored that society believes it causes crime. Individuals with employment means they out of job out and at lost wage. Can unemployment be the cause of crime in society? In my paper, I will look at the connection between crime and Unemployment in the united states using Secondary Data analysis avoid to me. Notwithstanding, I will also examine the connections between crime and other major factor such as, stress, education, neighborhoods and age and look at what can be done to reduce recidivism rate for unemployed individuals involved in criminal activities. Also, it important to have information and better understanding on how these factors affect criminal activity and discover possible solution and suggestion in future II. Literature Review 1) Identifying the Effect of Unemployment on Crime (Raphael Winter-Ember, 2001) analyzes the connection that exist between unemployment and crime. The author used U.S. state data to find how unemployment rate of the country plays a major role on the effect the seven felony offenses: burglary, larceny, auto theft, murder, rape, robbery and assault The initial three crimes are all of property crimes whiles the rest are violent crimes .The author find a good existence between unemployment and property crimes but shows less for violent crimes. 2) Poverty and Crime Besbris, Friedson, Sharkey, 2016 in their book shows how poverty is related to crime on both individual and community level by using the rational choice theory. They clarify the possibility of crime to happen, the offender mostly weighs in the cost and benefit they get from it. Individuals living in poverty are most likely to be involved in crime as the only way to escape from their present circumstance. The author used different theories to lifibrate their stance on poverty and crime, but have less empirical evidence to their claims 3) Unemployment and crime: Neighborhood level panel approach Andresen 2012 examine the relationship between the state of economy and its effect on unemployment .By doing so they look to examining the facts that goes into it such as motivation for crime .The author looks into the relationships between unemployment and crime using the neighbhood level date and hybrid ,regression methods and also the look at different mechanisms which as rational choice theory, strain theory ,and opportunity theory which divide these models and looks at the effect of employment into motivation and opportunity facts; that is ,opportunity effect dominates the motivation effect ,particularly for property crime . 4) The Effect of Education on Crime; Evidence from Inmates, Arrest and Self -Report Lochner and Moretti 2003, talks about different ways in which education can have positive impact on crime for offenders. The author shows empirical evidences to support their claims that shows that people who have an advanced education are less likely to commit crime and always try to stay out of crime because they know what lays ahead them and expand their future working chances. They do by looking into the recidivism rate for individuals release from prison and being provided with necessary tool they will need better their life same as the arrest and self-report among offenders. 5) Link between unemployment and Crime in the U.S: The A Markov -Switching approach Fallahi, and Rodr? ­guez, (2014) use the Markov-switching approach find the different ways in which unemployment rate and the four different of property crimes in the U.S.They do so my showing empirical correlation within the that exist between unemployment rate and property crime .They found that there is good chance but not relate important relation between unemployment rate ,Burglary ,larceny and robbery to occur but unemployment have a bad influence on motor-vehicle theft . III. Methods; Existing /Secondary Data The Department of Labors Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) publishes information on employment and wages by occupation, including career information, employment levels and projections, and various types of earnings data each year to determine the raise and fall of employment in the society , The United States Census Bureau is also other agency of the U.S. Federal Statistical System, that primary also publish data that indicate the r producing data every 10 years . The UCR Program, by the FBI, began in 1929 and collects information on crimes reported to law enforcement authorities: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson. The FBI annually publishes their findings in the spring of the following each year, followed by a detailed annual report, Crime in the United States, issued in the fall. National Institute of Justice provides data on the recidivism rate in the U.S based on the number of inmates that are released in the past three years and check if they have be rearrests ,reconviction or return to prison with or without new sentence .Recidivisms may be defined individuals committing crimes after their release and receives another sanctions or intervention for the past crimes. IV. Independent and Dependent Variable Unemployment, education, Recidivism rate among inmates, motivation of offenders on property crime are the independent variables, while crime rate is the dependent variable? The Unity of analysis in my paper will be Individuals: Inmates that just release, those that got arrested, and those reporting themselves to their parole officers and Groups .To fully understand this research and make suggestion, I look at then unemployment rate of the nation which is current around 4.1%.that is big step forward as nation why is crime always occurring in society frequently? Anybody that is out of job and at the loss of wage it this result can be classify as Unemployed Education is something that be define as process of acquiring knowledge through institution, such as university, Vocational schools and many more. Am going to measure all these variables and getting better understanding of them. By doing so am to compare and see these the difference them. Looking at the number of individuals with Hig h education, they are less likely to commit crimes as to those with lower education. That is because the those with high education have a better chance of getting themselves better playing jobs and have more education level and understand how society operate more better those with lower Education .2.7% as of 2015 but has decline to 0.6% in the recent years. are the people with college degree and yet still unemployed? That that represent 0.5% of prison population. Recidivism is variable that needs to be investigate as 68.8% of people release from prison are likely to be rearrested because they come out with no or low education or vocational skills that can help them live life without going back there again. with most of this inmate coming without low or no education. Property crime offenders are more likely to be arrested for the same crime because it easy to break in others house and steal from them when they are around. Crime rate has fallen as compare decades ago, yet the society has a fear and believed that crime is on the raise. The FBI report dedicate that viole nt crimes and property crime declining 2.6% in 2015. Motivation among offenders is something most research ignore when they are investigating why these individuals are always on edge to part of such crimes. Induvial who have engaged in criminal activities looks at the opportunity available to them to reengage in crimes. These offenders are more likely to turn back to crime to better their living condition in order not be part of poverty line which continue to grow to 12.7% with average house income of $24,339. Unemployment has a great cause of property crime during due to the existing off in models of aggregate property crime as well as models of individual felonies. However, there wasnt many consistencies was found for violent crime during the time of research but moreover did find out that more for the crimes of murder and rape, the initial results indicate that unemployment is negatively related to these crimesThe results from this study indicate that unemployment and crime depend highly on the cost of unemployment in a larger persp ective. According to the results of this study, it seems that higher unemployment does not solely lead to expenses directly related to unemployment, but also have indirect effects in the form of increased property crime but less effect on other crime. Ethics: Belmont reports which enforce three Ethical Concern: Respect for person, Beneficence and Justice but since am working only with secondary data and statics, there is nowhere in my research that I violate rules but rather my research will help provide details regarding employment for individuals in order to prevent them from criminal activities. My research was not bias or discriminatory but fair when it comes to the method, I applied Citation Raphael, S., Winter?Ebmer, R. (2001). Identifying the Effect of Unemployment on Crime. J Andresen, M. A. (2012). Unemployment and crime: A neighborhood level panel data approach. Social Science Research, 41(6), 1615-1628. doe: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.07.003 Journal of Law Economics, 44(1), 259-283. doi:10.1086/320275 Fallahi, F., Rodr? ­guez, G. (2014). Link between unemployment and crime in the US: A markov-switching approach. Social Science Research, 45, 33-45. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.12.007. Besbris, M., Friedson, M., Sharkey, P. (2016) The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty Lochner, L., Moretti, E. (2003) The Effect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmate, Arrests and Self- Reports.

The Business Case Of The United States Economy - 1355 Words

Cassandra Clark BUS R120 T/Th 9:30-10:45 Business Case Question 1: During the nineteenth century the United States economy quickly shifted to an industrial goods based economy which was in many cases driven by entrepreneurial businessmen who created industrial empires and grew very wealthy. Capitalism has survived for hundreds of years due to natural resources that were inexhaustible. Today there aren’t enough resources. Capitalism must again evolve due to â€Å"more global competition, a declining economy, faster technological change, and pressure to preserve the natural environment† (Nickels, McHugh and McHugh 206). Many companies are reorganizing to capitalize their profits. Take General Electric (GE) for example; they were number one in†¦show more content†¦One big aspect of this is their demand for a more environmentally friendly and socially responsible business. Consumers now have the power to select those companies that not just make good products but also give something back to their communities. Question 2: In order for organizations to stay relevant in the evolving business environment they must develop important skill sets such as improving production techniques, cutting costs, focusing on quality, and most importantly focusing on satisfying the customer. Instead of thinking short-term and wanting to improve products to make more money, companies should be thinking long-term because long-term thinking is needed in order to be more socially responsible. The closed loop concept of a continuous cycle of products with no waste of resources is being implemented in society. Only through growth toward this type of long-term concept combined with integral social responsibility can companies stay relevant. Core values need to become the main focus of companies. When Apple Inc. launched their think different campaign it became a whole new level with marketing being about values by showing people who they are as a company and what they are going to do to change the world. Manufacturers and service providers can become world-class competitors by â€Å"emphasizing close relationships with suppliers and other companies to satisfy

The Aristotles Idea of a Good Life Essay - 1037 Words

Question: What is Aristotle’s idea of a good life and why does he view a good life in this way? Is Aristotle’s understanding of a good life accurate? Why or why not? (Make sure to talk about the concept of the mean). To Aristotle leading a good life, for the most part, means fulfilling one’s purpose in a way that is good by balancing life’s pleasures. In order to determine if an object fulfills its function in a good way, we must first consider the object. If we were to agree that a car should be reliable, then we could also agree that reliable car should be considered a good car. Similarly, animals, for example, possess certain traits like the power of locomotion, and the desire to seek nourishment and reproduce. According to†¦show more content†¦Aristotle studied under Plato, who studied under Socrates, yet Aristotle tended to be more real-world oriented with regard to how he thought. Aristotle has come to be known as the father of logic, and has been credited as the first person to classify knowledge in specific categories like mathematics, and biology. Indeed, his sound reasoning skills and belief in the scientific method form the framework for much of his work, and his idea of a good life is probably no different (Richter, 2008). Aristotle was an observer of nature, and recognized the need for balance in natural systems. He could have reasoned that since humans are products of nature, we too must find a balance with-in our environments. This probably led to the idea of a golden mean, or balance between two extremes that humans should strive to achieve. The golden mean is not an exact middle or average in the mathematical sense, but rather a flexible guideline that can vary depending on the situation. In this way, it could be said that courage is the desirable trait that exists between cowardliness and recklessness. 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The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay

INTRODUCTION Ethical issues are those issues which at a personal, community or global level challenge the reader to make decisions of what is right or good behavior. Morality however refers to codes that are held about what is right and good behavior (Engebreston, 2006). In today’s world medical research and technology is rapidly changing and there are increasing ethical conflicts between science and religion particularly with the recent harvest and research of embryonic stem cells. The use of embryonic stem cells has been described by â€Å"Chris McDonald, stem cell research centre, 2008† as one of the most significant breakthroughs of this century in biomedicine. The focus question within this research assignment is, it is right to regard an†¦show more content†¦The most well accepted definition of stem cells however is that they are cells that can differentiate into many other different cells. Stem cells are responsible for renewing other cells and tissues within the h uman body. (National Health and Medical Research Council, 2010). Individual opinions on this issue are characterized by, religious, legal and medical values and belief. These form the basis of the debate as to whether or not it is humane and ethical to destroy even one embryo for the advance of the sciences and the benefit of millions. However there is an alternative method of stem cell research which makes use of adult stem cells that are found throughout the body, including in bone marrow and hair follicles. Robert Hoffman, of the American medical research company AntiCancer Inc, and colleagues at the University of California San Diego and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology said â€Å"it might someday be possible to take a persons own stem cells from hair follicles and grow a tissue transplant.† However, embryonic stem cells are still widely regarded by medical professionals as unparalleled in their potential, as they are easier to identify, isolate and harvest, ther e are more of them and they also grow more quickly and easily in labs. SHARED EXPERIENCES Before the commencement of this research task the researcher had little personal experience on the topic of stem cell research however after viewingShow MoreRelatedThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesStates, research has become a viable tool for sustaining and prolonging human life. As research evolves, it brings along with it much controversy, especially where stem cell research is involved. Stem cell research can bring new insight to today’s medical field. This may be the way of finding solutions concerning many health injuries and diseases which would diversely be thought of as implausible. Thoughts can be influenced by Deborah White, in Pros Cons of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, â€Å"EmbryonicRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay787 Words   |  4 PagesThe Controversy Over Stem Cell Research In a lab at the University of California, a scientist carefully isolates several cells and locates them to a petry dish. A few days later, he returns to find the cells pulsating like a human heart (Gorman 58). This account has actually been occurring at several scientific labs across the nation. These cells, known as stem cells, produce nearly all the other cells and tissues found in the human body (Sobel Sep 4, 22). Intensive research has found that whenRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2353 Words   |  10 PagesThe Moral Debate over Stem Cell Research President George W. Bush looked stern and confident as he addressed the American people on August 9th, 2001. It was an historic day for the 43rd president, as he explained the debate surrounding embryonic stem cell research, including its possible benefits for science but also its problems surrounding morals and ethics. â€Å"The issue is debated within the church, with people of different faiths, even many of the same faith coming to different conclusionsRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research2589 Words   |  11 Pagesof stem cells can become a very controversial subject in the scientific research world. Stem cells serve as an internal repair system to restore other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. By doing so, many fatal and untreatable diseases such as leukemia and Parkinson’s would be able to be treated and cured. The origination of stem cells is what stirs up great controversy across the nation and among the world. Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells:Read MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay878 Words   |  4 PagesStem Cell Research   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of stem cell research does not affect me so much at the moment. It might in the future, but for now it does not. I do believe that stem cell research should be used for cloning organs that will be used for organ transplants. I do not however think that parents should place the doctors on pedestals just because these â€Å"mad scientists† supposedly have the power of God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of heated debate does intrigue me, but not to the point as to where I would makeRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research1025 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Should stem cell research be allowed? Stem cell research has been a major biological breakthrough in recent years. It has great potential to help people and ease suffering. But there is also a moral question raised about stem cell research, and that comes from the source of stem cells. Ever since Stem Cell research started, there has been much debate over whether or not it should be allowed. Some people are completely against stem cell research becauseRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1477 Words   |  6 PagesStem Cells Few scientific issues in recent years have managed to draw as much attention, both scientific and otherwise, than stem cell research. I was first introduced to the term ‘stem cells’ when I was in high school, and since then, I have had a keen interest in the direction science is taking them. When considering medical research as a whole, stem cells appear to have the makings of a 21st century medical revolution a la discovery of antibiotics . The open-ended nature of stems cells hasRead More The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay3495 Words   |  14 PagesEmbryonic Stem Cell Research Stem cells are the newest hot topic in biological research. Very few other ongoing areas of research have been the focus of numerous articles, Presidential and Congressional scrutiny, and numerous ethical debates played out in the national media. This ongoing focus on stem cells is due in part to their amazing potential and in part to the controversial nature of one type of stem cell—the embryonic stem cell. The key question that is being dealt with is the issueRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2717 Words   |  11 PagesStem Cell Research - Embryonic Stem Cell Use Controversial Despite the strong consensus in America against creating embryos to destroy them, those actually involved in embryo research no longer see any serious ethical problem in it. Now the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) says that ASRMs ethical guidelines permit the creation of human embryos to destroy them. Some even argue that such research is morally superior to the use of spare embryos, because the egg and sperm donorsRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay examples1237 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Extraordinary advances in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases is believed, by many experts, to lie behind the curtain of stem cell research. Very few other areas of research have received this much attention from the media, political leaders and various groups and organizations from around the nation. The responsiveness to this issue has been incredible because of the potential of these studies as well as the most controversial aspect of the research; The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay Stem Cell Research The topic of stem cell research does not affect me so much at the moment. It might in the future, but for now it does not. I do believe that stem cell research should be used for cloning organs that will be used for organ transplants. I do not however think that parents should place the doctors on pedestals just because these â€Å"mad scientists† supposedly have the power of God. The topic of heated debate does intrigue me, but not to the point as to where I would make a career of it. I think that stem cell research is a really great idea because it saves people’s lives. After hearing both sides of debates I have to say the research being done is good because of the progress and the advances it can bring to the†¦show more content†¦As far as anyone knows this technique has not been tested on humans. But if any of these techniques are banned, private funding will pay for the continuation of experiments and research. This applies to everything pertaining to what was discussed in these articles. Bush recalls, â€Å"†¦in recent weeks, we have learned that scientists have created human embryos in test tubes solely to experiment on them,’(627). This right here shows how humans can distort how medical advances can help save lives and ruin them because of money. That is where the scientists think that they have the power to become God, and the parents think they can pick out the way their children look. Assuming that the scientists do not charge and arm and a leg for the procedures done to change a life, in the world today some parents might use the technique of artificial insemination. The parents who use this are using it as a last resort, because they are unable to have a child together. This is acceptable, because they want to have a child; they do not want to custom design their children. Cloning is another subject to be banned; if it is banned then many ailing patients ill die before those medical advances can save them. Cloning for organs was a big step for medical advances. It opened a doorway for new possibilities in medicine, helping thousands of people. â€Å"President Bush’s take on stem cellShow MoreRelatedThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesStates, research has become a viable tool for sustaining and prolonging human life. As research evolves, it brings along with it much controversy, especially where stem cell research is involved. Stem cell research can bring new insight to today’s medical field. This may be the way of finding solutions concerning many health injuries and diseases which would diversely be thought of as implausible. Thoughts can be influenced by Deborah White, in Pros Cons of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, â€Å"EmbryonicRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay787 Words   |  4 PagesThe Controversy Over Stem Cell Research In a lab at the University of California, a scientist carefully isolates several cells and locates them to a petry dish. A few days later, he returns to find the cells pulsating like a human heart (Gorman 58). This account has actually been occurring at several scientific labs across the nation. These cells, known as stem cells, produce nearly all the other cells and tissues found in the human body (Sobel Sep 4, 22). Intensive research has found that whenRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2353 Words   |  10 PagesThe Moral Debate over Stem Cell Research President George W. Bush looked stern and confident as he addressed the American people on August 9th, 2001. It was an historic day for the 43rd president, as he explained the debate surrounding embryonic stem cell research, including its possible benefits for science but also its problems surrounding morals and ethics. â€Å"The issue is debated within the church, with people of different faiths, even many of the same faith coming to different conclusionsRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research2589 Words   |  11 Pagesof stem cells can become a very controversial subject in the scientific research world. Stem cells serve as an internal repair system to restore other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. By doing so, many fatal and untreatable diseases such as leukemia and Parkinson’s would be able to be treated and cured. The origination of stem cells is what stirs up great controversy across the nation and among the world. Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells:Read MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research1025 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Should stem cell research be allowed? Stem cell research has been a major biological breakthrough in recent years. It has great potential to help people and ease suffering. But there is also a moral question raised about stem cell research, and that comes from the source of stem cells. Ever since Stem Cell research started, there has been much debate over whether or not it should be allowed. Some people are completely against stem cell research becauseRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1477 Words   |  6 PagesStem Cells Few scientific issues in recent years have managed to draw as much attention, both scientific and otherwise, than stem cell research. I was first introduced to the term ‘stem cells’ when I was in high school, and since then, I have had a keen interest in the direction science is taking them. When considering medical research as a whole, stem cells appear to have the makings of a 21st century medical revolution a la discovery of antibiotics . The open-ended nature of stems cells hasRead More The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay3495 Words   |  14 PagesEmbryonic Stem Cell Research Stem cells are the newest hot topic in biological research. Very few other ongoing areas of research have been the focus of numerous articles, Presidential and Congressional scrutiny, and numerous ethical debates played out in the national media. This ongoing focus on stem cells is due in part to their amazing potential and in part to the controversial nature of one type of stem cell—the embryonic stem cell. The key question that is being dealt with is the issueRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2717 Words   |  11 PagesStem Cell Research - Embryonic Stem Cell Use Controversial Despite the strong consensus in America against creating embryos to destroy them, those actually involved in embryo research no longer see any serious ethical problem in it. Now the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) says that ASRMs ethical guidelines permit the creation of human embryos to destroy them. Some even argue that such research is morally superior to the use of spare embryos, because the egg and sperm donorsRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2103 Words   |  9 Pages(Engebreston, 2006). In today’s world medical research and technology is rapidly changing and there are increasing ethical conflicts between science and religion particularly with the recent harvest and research of embryonic stem cells. The use of embryonic stem cells has been described by â€Å"Chris McDonald, stem cell research centre, 2008† as one of the most significant breakthroughs of this century in biomedicine. The focus question within this rese arch assignment is, it is right to regard an embryoRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay examples1237 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Extraordinary advances in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases is believed, by many experts, to lie behind the curtain of stem cell research. Very few other areas of research have received this much attention from the media, political leaders and various groups and organizations from around the nation. The responsiveness to this issue has been incredible because of the potential of these studies as well as the most controversial aspect of the research; The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay Stem Cell Research - Embryonic Stem Cell Use Controversial Despite the strong consensus in America against creating embryos to destroy them, those actually involved in embryo research no longer see any serious ethical problem in it. Now the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) says that ASRMs ethical guidelines permit the creation of human embryos to destroy them. Some even argue that such research is morally superior to the use of spare embryos, because the egg and sperm donors understand from the beginning what the embryos will be used for. Similarly, when ACT testified before Congress in 1998, it was virtually alone in insisting that success in embryonic stem cell research would require moving on to human†¦show more content†¦It is illegal because it violates an appropriations rider (the Dickey amendment) passed every year since 1995 by Congress. That provision forbids funding research in which human embryos (whether initially created for research purposes or not) are harmed or destroyed outside the womb.(1) National Institutes of Health guidelines approved by the Clinton Administration nonetheless give researchers detailed instructions on how to obtain human embryos for destructive cell harvesting, if they wish to qualify for federal grants in human pluripotent stem cell research.(2) Clearly, obtaining and destroying embryos is an integral part of this project, even if the specific act of destroying embryos does not directly receive federal funds. By implementing these guidelines, the federal government would encourage researchers to conduct destructive embryo experiments that are punishable as felonies in some states.(3) This proposal is immoral because it violates a central tenet of all civilized codes on human experimentation beginning with the Nuremberg Code: It approves doing deadly harm to a member of the human species solely for the sake of potential benefit to others. The embryos to be destroyed by researchers in this campaign are at the same stage of development as embryos in the womb who have been protected as human subjects in federally funded research since 1975.(4)Show MoreRelatedThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesStates, research has become a viable tool for sustaining and prolonging human life. As research evolves, it brings along with it much controversy, especially where stem cell research is involved. Stem cell research can bring new insight to today’s medical field. This may be the way of finding solutions concerning many health injuries and diseases which would diversely be thought of as implausible. Thoughts can be influenced by Deborah White, in Pros Cons of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, â€Å"EmbryonicRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay787 Words   |  4 PagesThe Controversy Over Stem Cell Research In a lab at the University of California, a scientist carefully isolates several cells and locates them to a petry dish. A few days later, he returns to find the cells pulsating like a human heart (Gorman 58). This account has actually been occurring at several scientific labs across the nation. These cells, known as stem cells, produce nearly all the other cells and tissues found in the human body (Sobel Sep 4, 22). Intensive research has found that whenRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2353 Words   |  10 PagesThe Moral Debate over Stem Cell Research President George W. Bush looked stern and confident as he addressed the American people on August 9th, 2001. It was an historic day for the 43rd president, as he explained the debate surrounding embryonic stem cell research, including its possible benefits for science but also its problems surrounding morals and ethics. â€Å"The issue is debated within the church, with people of different faiths, even many of the same faith coming to different conclusionsRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research2589 Words   |  11 Pagesof stem cells can become a very controversial subject in the scientific research world. Stem cells serve as an internal repair system to restore other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. By doing so, many fatal and untreatable diseases such as leukemia and Parkinson’s would be able to be treated and cured. The origination of stem cells is what stirs up great controversy across the nation and among the world. Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells:Read MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay878 Words   |  4 PagesStem Cell Research   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of stem cell research does not affect me so much at the moment. It might in the future, but for now it does not. I do believe that stem cell research should be used for cloning organs that will be used for organ transplants. I do not however think that parents should place the doctors on pedestals just because these â€Å"mad scientists† supposedly have the power of God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of heated debate does intrigue me, but not to the point as to where I would makeRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research1025 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Should stem cell research be allowed? Stem cell research has been a major biological breakthrough in recent years. It has great potential to help people and ease suffering. But there is also a moral question raised about stem cell research, and that comes from the source of stem cells. Ever since Stem Cell research started, there has been much debate over whether or not it should be allowed. Some people are completely against stem cell research becauseRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1477 Words   |  6 PagesStem Cells Few scientific issues in recent years have managed to draw as much attention, both scientific and otherwise, than stem cell research. I was first introduced to the term ‘stem cells’ when I was in high school, and since then, I have had a keen interest in the direction science is taking them. When considering medical research as a whole, stem cells appear to have the makings of a 21st century medical revolution a la discovery of antibiotics . The open-ended nature of stems cells hasRead More The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay3495 Words   |  14 PagesEmbryonic Stem Cell Research Stem cells are the newest hot topic in biological research. Very few other ongoing areas of research have been the focus of numerous articles, Presidential and Congressional scrutiny, and numerous ethical debates played out in the national media. This ongoing focus on stem cells is due in part to their amazing potential and in part to the controversial nature of one type of stem cell—the embryonic stem cell. The key question that is being dealt with is the issueRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2103 Words   |  9 Pages(Engebreston, 2006). In today’s world medical research and technology is rapidly changing and there are increasing ethical conflicts between science and religion particularly with the recent harvest and research of embryonic stem cells. The use of embryonic stem cells has been described by â€Å"Chris McDonald, stem cell research centre, 2008† as one of the most significant breakthroughs of this century in biomedicine. The focus question within this research assignment is, it is right to regard an embryoRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay examples1237 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Extraordinary advances in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases is believed, by many experts, to lie behind the curtain of stem cell research. Very few other areas of research have received this much attention from the media, political leaders and various groups and organizations from around the nation. The responsiveness to this issue has been incredible because of the potential of these studies as well as the most controversial aspect of the research; The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay In present days of life in The United States, research has become a viable tool for sustaining and prolonging human life. As research evolves, it brings along with it much controversy, especially where stem cell research is involved. Stem cell research can bring new insight to today’s medical field. This may be the way of finding solutions concerning many health injuries and diseases which would diversely be thought of as implausible. Thoughts can be influenced by Deborah White, in Pros Cons of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, â€Å"Embryonic stem cells are thought by most scientists and researchers to hold potential cures for spinal cord injuries, multiple sclerosis, diabetes, Parkinsons disease, cancer, Alzheimers disease, heart disease,†¦show more content†¦This brings us to the controversial position on stem cell research. Scientists want to do research on aborted embryos or fertilized human embryos left over from medical procedures, such as In Vetro Fertilization s (IVF). Since abortion is considered the murdering of unborn babies, is it still a good thing to do this research on embryos? The thought of many is, if the abortions are happening anyway; why not do the research on embryos? Another venue of stem cell research could be acquired from an adult’s blood or bone marrow. However, these stem cells may not as adaptable and may only grow into a few select tissues. In contrast, embryonic stem cells can grow into very nearly any tissue. The question continues, is it morally wrong to kill babies to possibly discover a cure for ailments of the world? Adult stem cells have already contributed to the cure of many diseases, many cancer related. To accredit Deborah White, in Pros Cons of Embryonic Stem Cell Research, â€Å"Stem cells are found in limited quantities in every human body, and can be extracted from adult tissue with great effort but without harm.† and â€Å"Actual cures are many years away, though, since research ha s not progressed to the point where even one cure has yet been generated by embryonic stem cell research. â€Å"Show MoreRelatedThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay787 Words   |  4 PagesThe Controversy Over Stem Cell Research In a lab at the University of California, a scientist carefully isolates several cells and locates them to a petry dish. A few days later, he returns to find the cells pulsating like a human heart (Gorman 58). This account has actually been occurring at several scientific labs across the nation. These cells, known as stem cells, produce nearly all the other cells and tissues found in the human body (Sobel Sep 4, 22). Intensive research has found that whenRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2353 Words   |  10 PagesThe Moral Debate over Stem Cell Research President George W. Bush looked stern and confident as he addressed the American people on August 9th, 2001. It was an historic day for the 43rd president, as he explained the debate surrounding embryonic stem cell research, including its possible benefits for science but also its problems surrounding morals and ethics. â€Å"The issue is debated within the church, with people of different faiths, even many of the same faith coming to different conclusionsRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research2589 Words   |  11 Pagesof stem cells can become a very controversial subject in the scientific research world. Stem cells serve as an internal repair system to restore other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. By doing so, many fatal and untreatable diseases such as leukemia and Parkinson’s would be able to be treated and cured. The origination of stem cells is what stirs up great controversy across the nation and among the world. Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells:Read MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay878 Words   |  4 PagesStem Cell Research   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of stem cell research does not affect me so much at the moment. It might in the future, but for now it does not. I do believe that stem cell research should be used for cloning organs that will be used for organ transplants. I do not however think that parents should place the doctors on pedestals just because these â€Å"mad scientists† supposedly have the power of God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The topic of heated debate does intrigue me, but not to the point as to where I would makeRead MoreEssay on The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research1025 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Should stem cell research be allowed? Stem cell research has been a major biological breakthrough in recent years. It has great potential to help people and ease suffering. But there is also a moral question raised about stem cell research, and that comes from the source of stem cells. Ever since Stem Cell research started, there has been much debate over whether or not it should be allowed. Some people are completely against stem cell research becauseRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay1477 Words   |  6 PagesStem Cells Few scientific issues in recent years have managed to draw as much attention, both scientific and otherwise, than stem cell research. I was first introduced to the term ‘stem cells’ when I was in high school, and since then, I have had a keen interest in the direction science is taking them. When considering medical research as a whole, stem cells appear to have the makings of a 21st century medical revolution a la discovery of antibiotics . The open-ended nature of stems cells hasRead More The Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay3495 Words   |  14 PagesEmbryonic Stem Cell Research Stem cells are the newest hot topic in biological research. Very few other ongoing areas of research have been the focus of numerous articles, Presidential and Congressional scrutiny, and numerous ethical debates played out in the national media. This ongoing focus on stem cells is due in part to their amazing potential and in part to the controversial nature of one type of stem cell—the embryonic stem cell. The key question that is being dealt with is the issueRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2717 Words   |  11 PagesStem Cell Research - Embryonic Stem Cell Use Controversial Despite the strong consensus in America against creating embryos to destroy them, those actually involved in embryo research no longer see any serious ethical problem in it. Now the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) says that ASRMs ethical guidelines permit the creation of human embryos to destroy them. Some even argue that such research is morally superior to the use of spare embryos, because the egg and sperm donorsRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay2103 Words   |  9 Pages(Engebreston, 2006). In today’s world medical research and technology is rapidly changing and there are increasing ethical conflicts between science and religion particularly with the recent harvest and research of embryonic stem cells. The use of embryonic stem cells has been described by â€Å"Chris McDonald, stem cell research centre, 2008† as one of the most significant breakthroughs of this century in biomedicine. The focus question within this rese arch assignment is, it is right to regard an embryoRead MoreThe Heated Debate Concerning Stem Cell Research Essay examples1237 Words   |  5 PagesStem Cell Research Extraordinary advances in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of human diseases is believed, by many experts, to lie behind the curtain of stem cell research. Very few other areas of research have received this much attention from the media, political leaders and various groups and organizations from around the nation. The responsiveness to this issue has been incredible because of the potential of these studies as well as the most controversial aspect of the research;

Top Illustrative Writing Reviews!

Top Illustrative Writing Reviews! The Lost Secret of Illustrative Writing Keep on writing what it is that you're likely to share with the reader, and offer reasons for picking a specific topic. The author uses words to paint a picture for the reader so the reader can visualize what the writer is attempting to say. Quite simply, it illustrates or demonstrates an idea or something about the topic through using examples. You ought to be aware of your audience and have to be quite clear concerning the fact in your thoughts, and you need to back up the overall truth and your point by the stories you illustrate. Illustrative Writing - Is it a Scam? It is essential that your writing is succinct. Excellent essay writing always starts with the practice of planning. Acquiring excellent writing skills needs a lot of hard work, so keep practicing until you grow to be a true expert! If you want more college level illustration essay topics, you're able to easily see them on the internet since there are plenty of such lists. To ensure that your illustrative essay is a winner, have lots of factual info, explain that factual data in an intriguing way and don't be scared to throw in many examples. There are scores and scores of various channels on the internet that dwell upon particular topics which may be on the creation of your essay. There are a lot of approaches to find the info necessary for your essay. College students are often assigned to compose illustrative essays since they are among the most helpful tactics to put forth an idea or maybe to clarify a theory. The Ideal Approach for Illustrative Writing The solution ought to be proper and feasible. The best method to prove your point is to demonstrate a real-life example. The trick is to choose a topic that one may argue for or against its existence. A large part of evaluation is contingent on the conclusion part. What You Should Do About Illustrative Writing Starting in the Next 5 Minutes You need to make use of concrete examples to create a lot superior understanding for your readers and allow it to be relatable for your audience. There are a lot of different study habits, so it's very important to individuals to determine which one works for them. Great study habits are very beneficial for men and women in education, and they are sometimes learned with enough repetition. Students have to develop decent study habits if they are supposed to reach their whole potential in any course or degree. Among other sorts of essays, it is among the simplest to write. Still, in the event the essay is on free subject, you should ascertain the length by yourself. So to be certain that you compose a top-quality essay you obviously should know the inside story of the topic. Illustrative essays might incorporate both detailed and fast examples. The important part of an illustrative essay is to supply illustrations. You might now give a succinct overview of your essay that follows especially the list of stories which you are likely to narrate in the other region of the essay. The following are a few appropriate essay topics that you could take into consideration when you want to compose a great paper that will earn you the top marks you would like. To understand several types of academic essays better, you might prefer the website full of totally free essay examples. You shouldn't necessarily expend plenty of ink on a specific example simply because you've found a great deal of information on it. There's the range of topics divided into categories depending on their theme. A particular case of illustration utilizes a personal experience or other folks experience that is proven to be dominant to present an integral illustration essay example. For instance, take some related images and attempt to describe them in detail . When you have identified what you'd love to write about, provide a thesis statement with regard to the illustrative topic. You're going to require a good amount of examples to back up your thesis. The thesis is the idea you're likely to support throughout the remainder of your essay by giving examples and explanation. It should also be argumentative and challenging. Just like every kind of essay it's important that you know the characteristics prior to starting your research and writing. The most important writing strategy for it is to give an overview of empirical data and supply a detailed and crystal clear definition. Explain how you plan your diet plan. In the event you've got zero comprehension of the situations you write about, your odds to compose a fantastic paper will be a lot lower. You need a definite idea about what you wish to say if you wish to be in a position to support it. A very long narrative about your individual feelings about winter may appear relevant to the topic, but it doesn't prove that the majority of people hibernate. Making something into a habit can take some moment, and that time can be challenging.

Expert System free essay sample

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS This chapter introduces the basic concepts of expert systems. The hierarchical process of developing expert systems is presented, as well as the essential characteristics of expert systems are presented. More speci? c details of the concepts introduced in this chapter are covered in subsequent chapters. 2. 1 EXPERT SYSTEMS PROCESS This book is organized in the structure of a strategic process for developing successful expert systems. Figure 2. 1 presents the hierarchy of topics as they are presented here and in the subsequent chapters. The strategic process is recommended for anyone venturing into the technology of expert systems from the standpoint of training, research, or applications. This chapter covers the basic concepts of expert systems technology. A basic understanding of these concepts is essential to getting the most out of expert systems. More speci? c details of the concepts presented in this chapter are discussed in appropriate sections of the subsequent chapters. Chapter 3 covers problem analysis. To be effective, the right problems must be selected for expert systems implementation. The principle of ‘‘garbage in, garbage out’’ is also applicable here. Wrong problems lead to incorrect implementation of expert systems. Chapter 4 covers knowledge engineering. Knowledge acquisition is a critical aspect of the expert systems effort. If the knowledge collected is garbage, the best that can be expected from a system is garbage. Chapter 5 presents probabilistic and fuzzy reasoning. Chapter 6 presents fuzzy systems techniques for handling uncertainty in expert systems. Chapter 7 presents neural networks. Chapter 8 covers neural-fuzzy networks. Chapter 9 presents the technique of evolutionary computing. Chapter 10 presents an application to manufacturing. Chapter 11 presents an application to forecasting. 13 14 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE IMPLEMENTATION, INTEGRATION TESTING, VERIFICATION, VALIDATION DEVELOPMENT PROCESS TOOL SELECTION Tasks KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION PROBLEM SELECTION CONCEPTS BACKGROUND Time Figure 2. 1. Hierarchy of expert systems development process. 2. 2 EXPERT SYSTEMS CHARACTERISTICS By de? nition, an expert system is a computer program that simulates the thought process of a human expert to solve complex decision problems in a speci? c domain. This chapter addresses the characteristics of expert systems that make them different from conventional programming and traditional decision support tools. The growth of expert systems is expected to continue for several years. With the continuing growth, many new and exciting applications will emerge. An expert system operates as an interactive system that responds to questions, asks for clari? cation, makes recommendations, and generally aids the decision-making process. Expert systems provide expert advice and guidance in a wide variety of activities, from computer diagnosis to delicate medical surgery. Various de? nitions of expert systems have been offered by several authors. A general de? nition that is representative of the intended functions of expert systems is: An expert system is an interactive computer-based decision tool that uses both facts and heuristics to solve dif? cult decision problems based on knowledge acquired from an expert. 2. 2 EXPERT SYSTEMS CHARACTERISTICS 15 An expert system may be viewed as a computer simulation of a human expert. Expert systems are an emerging technology with many areas for potential applications. Past applications range from MYCIN, used in the medical ? eld to diagnose infectious blood diseases, to XCON, used to con? gure computer systems. These expert systems have proven to be quite successful. Most applications of expert systems will fall into one of the following categories: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Interpreting and identifying Predicting Diagnosing Designing Planning Monitoring Debugging and testing Instructing and training Controlling Applications that are computational or deterministic in nature are not good candidates for expert systems. Traditional decision support systems such as spreadsheets are very mechanistic in the way they solve problems. They operate under mathematical and Boolean operators in their execution and arrive at one and only one static solution for a given set of data. Calculationintensive applications with very exacting requirements are better handled by traditional decision support tools or conventional programming. The best application candidates for expert systems are those dealing with expert heuristics for solving problems. Conventional computer programs are based on factual knowledge, an indisputable strength of computers. Humans, by contrast, solve problems on the basis of a mixture of factual and heuristic knowledge. Heuristic knowledge, composed of intuition, judgment, and logical inferences, is an indisputable strength of humans. Successful expert systems will be those that combine facts and heuristics and thus merge human knowledge with computer power in solving problems. To be effective, an expert system must focus on a particular problem domain, as discussed below. 2. 2. 1 Domain Speci? city Expert systems are typically very domain speci? c. For example, a diagnostic expert system for troubleshooting computers must actually perform all the necessary data manipulation as a human expert would. The developer of such a system must limit his or her scope of the system to just what is needed to solve the target problem. Special tools or programming languages are often needed to accomplish the speci? c objectives of the system. 16 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 2. 2. 2 Special Programming Languages Expert systems are typically written in special programming languages. The use of languages like LISP and PROLOG in the development of an expert system simpli? s the coding process. The major advantage of these languages, as compared to conventional programming languages, is the simplicity of the addition, elimination, or substitution of new rules and memory management capabilities. Some of the distinguishing characteristics of programming languages needed for expert systems work are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ à ¢â‚¬ ¢ Ef? cient mix of integer and real variables Good memory-management procedures Extensive data-manipulation routines Incremental compilation Tagged memory architecture Optimization of the systems environment Ef? cient search procedures 2. 3 EXPERT SYSTEMS STRUCTURE Complex decisions involve intricate combination of factual and heuristic knowledge. In order for the computer to be able to retrieve and effectively use heuristic knowledge, the knowledge must be organized in an easily accessible format that distinguishes among data, knowledge, and control structures. For this reason, expert systems are organized in three distinct levels: 1. Knowledge base consists of problem-solving rules, procedures, and intrinsic data relevant to the problem domain. 2. Working memory refers to task-speci? c data for the problem under consideration. . Inference engine is a generic control mechanism that applies the axiomatic knowledge in the knowledge base to the task-speci? c data to arrive at some solution or conclusion. These three pieces may very well come from different sources. The inference engine, such as VP-Expert, may come from a commercial vendor. The knowledge base may be a speci? c diagnostic knowledge base compiled by a consul ting ? rm, and the problem data may be supplied by the end user. A knowledge base is the nucleus of the expert system structure. A knowledge base is not a data base. The traditional data base environment deals with data that have a static relationship between the elements in the problem domain. A knowledge base is created by knowledge engineers, who translate the knowledge of real human experts into rules and strategies. These rules and 2. 3 EXPERT SYSTEMS STRUCTURE 17 Knowledge Engineers Software Inference Engine Users Experts Working Memory Spreadsheets Knowledge Base Data Bases Hardware Data Figure 2. 2. Expert systems organization and operating environment. strategies can change depending on the prevailing problem scenario. The nowledge base provides the expert system with the capability to recommend directions for user inquiry. The system also instigates further investigation into areas that may be important to a certain line of reasoning but not apparent to the user. The modularity of an expert system is an important distinguishing characteristic compared to a conventional computer program. Modularity is effected in an expert system by the use of three distinct components, as shown in Figure 2. 2. The knowledge base constitutes the problem-solving rules, facts, or intuition that a human expert might use in solving problems in a given problem domain. The knowledge base is usually stored in terms of if–then rules. The working memory represents relevant data for the current problem being solved. The inference engine is the control mechanism that organizes the problem data and searches through the knowledge base for applicable rules. With the increasing popularity of expert systems, many commercial inference engines are coming onto the market. A survey of selected commercial infer- 18 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS Domain Expert Transfer of Expertise Control Structure Knowledge Engineer Knowledge Structure External Interfaces Inference Engine Working Memory Problem Data Solutions Knowledge Base Updates Data Bases Spreadsheets Executable Programs User Interface (Consultation/Explanation) Figure 2. 3. Integration of expert systems components. ence engines is presented in the Appendix at the end of this book. The development of a functional expert system usually centers around the organization of the knowledge base. A functional integration of expert systems components is shown in Figure 2. 3. A good expert system is expected to grow as it learns from user feedback. Feedback is incorporated into the knowledge base as appropriate to make the expert system smarter. The dynamism of the application environment for expert systems is based on the individual dynamism of the components. This can be classi? ed as follows: †¢ Most dynamic: Working memory. The contents of the working memory, sometimes called the data structure, changes with each problem situation. Consequently, it is the most dynamic component of an expert system, assuming, of course, that it is kept current. †¢ Moderately dynamic: Knowledge base. The knowledge base need not change unless a new piece of information arises that indicates a change in the problem solution procedure. Changes in the knowledge base should be carefully evaluated before being implemented. In effect, changes should not be based on just one consultation experience. For example, a rule that is found to be irrelevant under one problem situation may turn out to be crucial in solving other problems. 2. 3 EXPERT SYSTEMS STRUCTURE 19 †¢ Least dynamic: Inference engine. Because of the strict control and coding structure of an inference engine, changes are made only if absolutely necessary to correct a bug or enhance the inferential process. Commercial inference engines, in particular, change only at the discretion of the developer. Since frequent updates can be disruptive and costly to clients, most commercial software developers try to minimize the frequency of updates. 2. 3. 1 The Need for Expert Systems Expert systems are necessitated by the limitations associated with conventional human decision-making processes, including: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Human expertise is very scarce. Humans get tired from physical or mental workload. Humans forget crucial details of a problem. Humans are inconsistent in their day-to-day decisions. Humans have limited working memory. Humans are unable to comprehend large amounts of data quickly. Humans are unable to retain large amounts of data in memory. Humans are slow in recalling information stored in memory. Humans are subject to deliberate or inadvertent bias in their actions. Humans can deliberately avoid decision responsibilities. Humans lie, hide, and die. Coupled with these human limitations are the weaknesses inherent in conventional programming and traditional decision-support tools. Despite the mechanistic power of computers, they have certain limitations that impair their effectiveness in implementing human-like decision processes. Conventional programs: 1. Are algorithmic in nature and depend only on raw machine power 2. Depend on facts that may be dif? cult to obtain 3. Do not make use of the effective heuristic approaches used by human experts 4. Are not easily adaptable to changing problem environments 5. Seek explicit and factual solutions that may not be possible 2. 3. 2 Bene? ts of Expert Systems Expert systems offer an environment where the good capabilities of humans and the power of computers can be incorporated to overcome many of the limitations discussed in the previous section. Expert systems: 20 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS 1. Increase the probability, frequency, and consistency of making good decisions 2. Help distribute human expertise 3. Facilitate real-time, low-cost expert-level decisions by the nonexpert 4. Enhance the utilization of most of the available data 5. Permit objectivity by weighing evidence without bias and without regard for the user’s personal and emotional reactions 6. Permit dynamism through modularity of structure 7. Free up the mind and time of the human expert to enable him or her to concentrate on more creative activities 8. Encourage investigations into the subtle areas of a problem Expert Systems Are For Everyone. No matter which area of business one is engaged in, expert systems can ful? ll the need for higher productivity and reliability of decisions. Everyone can ? nd an application potential in the ? eld of expert systems. Contrary to the belief that expert systems may pose a threat to job security, expert systems can actually help to create opportunities for new job areas. Presented below are some areas that hold promise for new job opportunities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Basic research Applied research Knowledge engineering Inference engine development Consulting (development and implementation) Training Sales and marketing Passive or active end user An active user is one who directly uses expert systems consultations to obtain recommendations. A passive user is one who trusts the results obtained from expert systems and supports the implementation of those results. 2. 3. 3 Transition from Data Processing to Knowledge Processing What data has been to the previous generations of computing, knowledge is to the present generation of computing. Expert systems represent a revolutionary transition from the traditional data processing to knowledge processing. Figure 2. 4 illustrates the relationships between the procedures or data processing and knowledge processing to make decisions. In traditional data processing the decision maker obtains the information generated and performs an explicit analysis of the information before making his or her decision. In 2. 4 HEURISTIC REASONING 21 Explicit Conclusions Information Static Data Environment Data Data Processing Dynamic Knowledge Environment Knowledge Knowledge Processing Implicit Conclus ions Recommendations Implementation Figure 2. 4. Data processing versus knowledge processing. an expert system knowledge is processed by using available data as the processing fuel. Conclusions are reached and recommendations are derived implicitly. The expert system offers the recommendation to the decision maker, who makes the ? nal decision and implements it as appropriate. Conventional data can now be manipulated to work with durable knowledge, which can be processed to generate timely information, which is then used to enhance human decisions. 2. 4 HEURISTIC REASONING Human experts use a type of problem-solving technique called heuristic reasoning. Commonly called rules of thumb or expert heuristics, it allows the 22 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS xpert to arrive at a good solution quickly and ef? ciently. Expert systems base their reasoning process on symbolic manipulation and heuristic inference procedures that closely match the human thinking process. Conventional programs can only recognize numeric or alphabetic strings and manipulate them only in a preprogrammed manner. 2. 4. 1 Search Control Methods All expert systems are search intensive. Many techni ques have been employed to make these intensive searches more ef? cient. Branch and bound, pruning, depth-? rst search, and breadth-? rst search are some of the search techniques that have been explored. Because of the intensity of the search process, it is important that good search control strategies be used in the expert systems inference process. 2. 4. 2 Forward Chaining This method involves checking the condition part of a rule to determine whether it is true or false. If the condition is true, then the action part of the rule is also true. This procedure continues until a solution is found or a dead end is reached. Forward chaining is commonly referred to as data-driven reasoning. Further discussions of forward chaining are presented in subsequent chapters. 2. 4. 3 Backward Chaining Backward chaining is the reverse of forward chaining. It is used to backtrack from a goal to the paths that lead to the goal. Backward chaining is very good when all outcomes are known and the number of possible outcomes is not large. In this case, a goal is speci? ed and the expert system tries to determine what conditions are needed to arrive at the speci? ed goal. Backward chaining is thus also called goal-driven. More details are provided on the backward chaining process in Chapter 5. 2. 5 USER INTERFACE The initial development of an expert system is performed by the expert and the knowledge engineer. Unlike most conventional programs, in which only programmers can make program design decisions, the design of large expert systems is implemented through a team effort. A consideration of the needs of the end user is very important in designing the contents and user interface of expert systems. 2. 5 USER INTERFACE 23 2. 5. 1 Natural Language The programming languages used for expert systems tend to operate in a manner similar to ordinary conversation. We usually state the premise of a problem in the form of a question, with actions being stated much as when we verbally answer the question, that is, in a ‘‘natural language’’ format. If, during or after a consultation, an expert system determines that a piece of its data or knowledge base is incorrect or is no longer applicable because the problem environment has changed, it should be able to update the knowledge base accordingly. This capability would allow the expert system to converse in a natural language format with either the developers or users. Expert systems not only arrive at solutions or recommendations, but can give the user a level of con? dence about the solution. In this manner, an expert system can handle both quantitative and qualitative factors when analyzing problems. This aspect is very important when we consider how inexact most input data are for day-to-day decision making. For example, the problems addressed by an expert system can have more than one solution or, in some cases, no de? nite solution at all. Yet the expert system can provide useful recommendations to the user just as a human consultant might do. 2. 5. 2 Explanations Facility in Expert Systems One of the key characteristics of an expert system is the explanation facility. With this capability, an expert system can explain how it arrives at its conclusions. The user can ask questions dealing with the what, how, and why aspects of a problem. The expert system will then provide the user with a trace of the consultation process, pointing out the key reasoning paths followed during the consultation. Sometimes an expert system is required to solve other problems, possibly not directly related to the speci? c problem at hand, but whose solution will have an impact on the total problem-solving process. The explanation facility helps the expert system to clarify and justify why such a digression might be needed. 2. 5. 3 Data Uncertainties Expert systems are capable of working with inexact data. An expert system allows the user to assign probabilities, certainty factors, or con? dence levels to any or all input data. This feature closely represents how most problems are handled in the real world. An expert system can take all relevant factors into account and make a recommendation based on the best possible solution rather than the only exact solution. 2. 5. 4 Application Roadmap The symbolic processing capabilities of AI technology lead to many potential applications in engineering and manufacturing. With the increasing sophisti- 24 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS Speech Understanding Pattern Matching Natural Language Text Understanding Intelligent Assistance Inference Expert Systems Learning SYMBOLI C PROCESSING Automatic Programming Knowledge Representation Knowledge Acquisition Planning Machine Translation Computer Vision Robotics Search Figure 2. 5. Application roadmap for expert systems. cation of AI techniques, analysts are now able to use innovative methods to provide viable solutions to complex problems in everyday applications. Figure 2. 5 presents a structural representation of the application paths for arti? cial intelligence and expert systems. 2. 5. 5 Symbolic Processing Contrary to the practice in conventional programming, expert systems can manipulate objects symbolically to arrive at reasonable conclusions to a prob- 2. 5 USER INTERFACE 25 HEAD HAMMER BUCKET FOOT MEDICAL BILL From: Dr. B. B. Bill 1234 Doctor Avenue Hospital, OK 10001 ~~~~~~~~~ $$$$$$$$$ ~~~~~~~ $$$$$$ Figure 2. 6. Collection of common objects. lem scenario. The object drawings in this section are used to illustrate the versatility of symbolic processing by using the manipulation of objects to convey information. Let us assume that we are given the collection of ? ve common objects as shown in Figure 2. 6. The objects are Head, Hammer, Bucket, Foot, and Bill (as in doctor’s bill). We can logically arrange a subset of the set of given objects to convey speci? c inferences. In Figure 2. 7, four of the ? ve objects are arranged in the order Hammer, Head, Foot, and Bucket. This unique arrangement may be represented by the equation presented below: Hammer Head Foot Bucket It is desired to infer a reasonable statement of the information being conveyed by the symbolic arrangement of objects in Figure 2. 7. Figure 2. 8 presents an alternative arrangement of another subset (hammer, foot, foot, and bill) of the given objects. This alternative arrangement may be represented by the equation shown below: 26 FUNDAMENTALS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS Figure 2. 7. Arrangement of common objects. Hammer Foot Foot Bill It is desired to infer a reasonable statement from Figure 2. 8. It should be noted that ordinary mathematical reasoning concerning the equation hammer foot foot bill might lead to Hammer Bill. However, in arti? cial intelligence symbolic reasoning, the context of the arrangement of the objects will determine the proper implication. Figure 2. 7: If Hammer smashes Head, then victim kicks the bucket (i. e. , dies). In this case, the action part of the statement relates to an action (a fatal one) by the victim of the assault. Figure 2-8: If Hammer smashes Foot, then assailant foots the bill. In this case, the action part of the statement relates to a compensatory action (restitution) by the assailant. Using a ? nite set of symbolic objects, we can generate different pieces of information with different permutations of the objects. A particularly interesting aspect of symbolic processing is noted in Figure 2. 8. The object Foot MEDICAL BILL From: Dr. B. B. Bill 1234 Doctor Avenue Hospital, OK 10001 ~~~~~~~~~ $$$$$$$$$ ~~~~~~~ $$$$$$ Figure 2. 8. Alternate arrangement of objects. 2. 5 USER INTERFACE 27 conveys one meaning when concatenated with one given object (Hammer) and another totally different meaning when concatenated with another object (bill). In fact, the identi? cation of the object Bill is itself symbolically conveyed by the contents of the medical bill in Figure 2. 6. With the illustrated capability of symbolic processing, very powerful AI-based tools can be developed for practical applications. However, more research and development efforts will be needed before many of those practical applications can be realized.

Conflict and Negotiation for Hormel Negotiation- myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theConflict and Negotiation for Hormel Negotiation. Answer: Primary objectives of each of the parties in the Hormel negotiation Objective of company Due to recession in the economy; company want to be competitive for their survival in the industry thus the core objective of negotiation was minimised the wage rate as possible as they can to ensure optimal pricing strategies for their product (Rachleff, 1993). Objective of workers Wage cut proposed by the company was significantly high as they cut wage from $10.69 to $6.50. Along with this; other benefits were also reduced and work environment was also not safe (Kuhle and Knox, 1992). The primary objective of negotiation for workers was to get sufficient pay to survive the recession and their job security supported by the safe working environment. 2 Linkages (interconnections between various characters) affected (helped or hindered) these objectives Union They had supported workers but not the objectives of the company as they went against at the time where their support was needed most and as a consequence company hired skilled workers for their new plant by developing new factory with the new rules (Compa, 1986). They had not accepted the final offer of $10.00 wages per hours and due to the absence of good faith, there was the drastic consequence on employment. Mediators They had developed win-win proposal to resolve the strike and develop good relations among labour and company. Although; the their offer was misinterpreted. Wise president To resolve the conflict among employees secret ballot voting was held by him to give positive chance to proposed offer and received vote were 775 to 540. References Compa, L.A., 1986. A Second Look at the Hormel Strike.Working Papers, p.82. Kuhle, B. and Knox, K., 1992. The Hormel Strike at Austin, Minnesota.International Journal of Conflict Management,3(1), pp.45-68. Rachleff, P.J., 1993.Hard-pressed in the Heartland: The Hormel strike and the future of the labour movement. South End Press.